Unveiling gender differences in psychophysiological dynamics: support for a two-dimensional autonomic space approach.

Introduction: To date, studies focusing on the connection between psychological functioning and autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity usually adopted the one-dimensional model of autonomic balance, according to which activation of one branch of the ANS is accompanied by an inhibition of the other. However, the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches also activate independently; thus, co-activation and co-inhibition may occur, which is demonstrated by a two-dimensional model of ANS activity. Here, we apply such models to assess how markers of the autonomic space relate to several critical psychological constructs: emotional contagion (EC), general anxiety, and positive and negative affect (PA and NA). We also examined gender differences in those psychophysiological relations. Methods: In the present study, we analyzed data from 408 healthy students, who underwent a 5-min group baseline period as part of their participation in several experiments and completed self-reported questionnaires. Electrocardiogram (ECG), electrodermal activity (EDA), and respiration were recorded. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), pre-ejection period (PEP), as well as cardiac autonomic balance (CAB) and regulation (CAR) and cross-system autonomic balance (CSAB) and regulation (CSAR), were calculated. Results: Notably, two-dimensional models were more suitable for predicting and describing most psychological constructs. Gender differences were found in psychological and physiological aspects as well as in psychophysiological relations. Women's EC scores were negatively correlated with sympathetic activity and positively linked to parasympathetic dominance. Men's PA and NA scores were positively associated with sympathetic activity. PA in men also had a positive link to an overall activation of the ANS, and a negative link to parasympathetic dominance. Discussion: The current results expand our understanding of the psychological aspects of the autonomic space model and psychophysiological associations. Gender differences and strengths and weaknesses of alternative physiological models are discussed.

Autonomic nervous system responses to social stimuli among autistic individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Physiological responses to environmental and social stimuli have been studied broadly in relation to psychological states and processes. This may be especially important regarding autistic individuals, who show disparities in social interactions. However, findings from studies assessing autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses of autistic individuals present contradictions, with reports showing both autonomic disparities and intact autonomic functioning. The current study aimed to review the existing literature and to estimate if there is a difference between autistic individuals and neurotypical (NT) individuals in their autonomic responses to social stimuli. Furthermore, the study examined factors that may moderate this difference, including the type of physiological function measured, the level of participation required, as well as the age and intellectual functioning of the participants. The meta-analysis revealed a small and statistically insignificant overall difference between autistic and NT individuals, albeit with high heterogeneity. A further nested moderator analysis revealed a significant difference between autistic and NT individuals in physiological response that reflects mainly a parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activity. Another difference was found in physiological response that reflects a combined activity of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, but only for experimental tasks that demanded active participation in social interactions. These results suggest a distinctiveness in autonomic regulation of autistic individuals in social situations, and point to the PNS as an important study objective for future investigation.

Improvised herding: Mapping biobehavioral mechanisms that underlie group efficacy during improvised social interaction.

Improvisation is a natural occurring phenomenon that is central to social interaction. Yet, improvisation is an understudied area in group processes and intergroup relations. Here we build on theory and research about human herding to study the contributions of improvisation on group efficacy and its biobehavioral underpinnings. We employed a novel multimodal approach and integrative method when observing face-to-face interactions-51 triads (total N = 153) drummed together in spontaneous-free improvisations as a group, while their electrodermal activity was monitored simultaneously with their second-by-second rhythmic coordination on a shared electronic drum machine. Our results show that three hypothesized factors of human herding-physiological synchrony, behavioral coordination, and emotional contagion-predict a sense of group efficacy in its group members. These findings are some of the first to show herding at three levels (physiological, behavioral, and mental) in a single study and lay a basis for understanding the role of improvisation in social interaction.

From Oxytocin to Compassion: The Saliency of Distress.

Compassion is a warm response of care and concern for those who are suffering, which drives individuals to devote their resources for the sake of others. A prominent neuroevolutionary framework grounds compassion in the neurobiology of the mammalian caregiving system. Accordingly, it has been suggested that the oxytocinergic system, which plays a central role in parental caregiving and bonding, provides the neurobiological foundation for compassion towards strangers. Yet, the specific role of oxytocin in compassion is far from clear. The current paper aims to target this gap and offer a theoretical framework that integrates the state-of-the-art literature on oxytocin with research on compassion. We suggest that oxytocin mediates compassion by enhancing the saliency of cues of pain and distress and discuss the plausible underlying neurobiological substrates. We further demonstrate how the proposed framework can account for individual differences in compassion, focusing on the effects of attachment on caregiving and support. The proposed framework integrates the current scientific understanding of oxytocin function with compassion-related processes. It thus highlights the largely ignored attentional processes in compassion and taps into the vast variability of responses in social contexts involving pain and suffering.

I feel you: Prepandemic physiological synchrony and emotional contagion during COVID-19.

The COVID-19 pandemic has a major impact on mental well-being and interpersonal relationships. Nonetheless, little is known about the complex interactions between one's overall perceived interpersonal closeness and physiological or psychological aspects of interpersonal functioning. This study aimed to understand the interaction between perceived interpersonal closeness during COVID-19 and interpersonal mechanisms in predicting well-being. We focused on two interpersonal mechanisms, one physiological and the other psychological: (a) prepandemic physiological synchrony, a physiological measure of interpersonal coupling, and (b) peripandemic emotional contagion, one's tendency to "catch" others' emotions. One hundred fifty-five participants took part in the study. Cardiological interbeat interval synchrony was collected 1.5 to 3 years prior to the beginning of the COVID pandemic in two previous lab studies. Participants were recontacted during the pandemic, this time to complete several questionnaires tapping into perceived interpersonal closeness, tendency for emotional contagion, and psychological well-being during COVID. As hypothesized, overall perceived interpersonal closeness was positively related to well-being. Moreover, this effect was moderated by one's tendency for emotional contagion or by physiological synchrony. Thus, individuals with higher emotional contagion scores or higher physiological synchrony had higher well-being if their interpersonal closeness was perceived as greater. Conversely, their well-being was lower if they perceived their interpersonal closeness as weaker. These results emphasize that individuals may be differentially susceptible to the effects of their relationships on their well-being. Future mental health interventions should consider both the quality of one's perceived interpersonal closeness and the extent to which one is sensitive to others' emotional experiences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Micro-Analyses Reveal Increased Parent-Child Positive Affect in Children with Poorer Adaptive Functioning Receiving the ESDM.

Synchronous positive affect (SPA) is a key element of parent-child interaction quality which is related to favorable developmental outcomes. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their parents tend to show less SPA compared to other populations. The current study explored changes in SPA made by parents and their children with ASD following the Preschool-Based Early Start Denver Model (PB-ESDM) intervention. Thirty children receiving PB-ESDM and 23 receiving treatment-as-usual (TAU) were assessed pre- and post- intervention using microanalysis of video-recorded parent-child interactions, in which SPA was quantified. Results showed a significant increase in SPA among children receiving PB-ESDM who had lower pre-treatment adaptive functioning. These findings suggest that SPA may serve as a sensitive treatment outcome measure for children with poorer adaptive functioning, who often struggle to show significant changes on standardized measures. The study's modest sample and non-randomized design are noted as limitations.

Dataset of physiological, behavioral, and self-report measures from a group decision-making lab study.

This paper presents data from a study conducted in twenty groups of three participants each. Data were collected from sixty participants during a lab visit which was video recorded from several angles. Upon arrival to the lab and following informed consent, participants were told that they would be a part of a group decision-making task and were given instructions for a procedure titled "the desert survival task" Lafferty and Pond (1974). Participants were then connected to several electrodes on their upper body and palm for the collection of their electrocardiogram, respiration and electrodermal activity throughout the group task. Participants then performed the task together. The collection of physiological data from all group members was conducted simultaneously and in synchrony with the video recording. The video recordings of the group interactions were later coded by trained psychology students for positive affective behaviors made by participants (smiling and laughing) throughout the group task. Self-report measures (trait anxiety and social phobia) were collected prior to the group task from all participants. This multimodal dataset thus integrates behavioral, self-report, and physiological measures from group members, which are important for understanding group dynamics. These data will allow verification, replications, and additional analyses of the data from new perspectives.

Oxytocin impacts top-down and bottom-up social perception in adolescents with ASD: a MEG study of neural connectivity.

BACKGROUND: In the last decade, accumulative evidence has shown that oxytocin can modulate social perception in typically developed individuals and individuals diagnosed with autism. While several studies show that oxytocin (OT) modulates neural activation in social-related neural regions, the mechanism that underlies OT effects in ASD is not fully known yet. Despite evidence from animal studies on connections between the oxytocinergic system and excitation/inhibition neural balance, the influence of OT on oscillatory responses among individuals with ASD has been rarely examined. To bridge these gaps in knowledge, we investigated the effects of OT on both social and non-social stimuli while focusing on its specific influence on the neural connectivity between three socially related neural regions-the left and right fusiform and the medial frontal cortex. METHODS: Twenty-five adolescents with ASD participated in a wall-established social task during a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled MEG and OT administration study. Our main task was a social-related task that required the identification of social and non-social-related pictures. We hypothesized that OT would modulate the oscillatory connectivity between three pre-selected regions of interest to be more adaptive to social processing. Specifically, we focused on alpha and gamma bands which are known to play an important role in face processing and top-down/bottom-up balance. RESULTS: Compared to placebo, OT reduced the connectivity between the medial frontal cortex and the fusiform in the low gamma more for social stimuli than for non-social ones, a reduction that was correlated with individuals' performance in the task. Additionally, for both social and non-social stimuli, OT increased the connectivity in the alpha and beta bands. LIMITATIONS: Sample size was determined based on sample sizes previously reported in MEG in clinical populations, especially OT administration studies in combination with neuroimaging in ASD. We were limited in our capability to recruit for such a study, and as such, the sample size was not based on a priori power analysis. Additionally, we limited our analyses to specific neural bands and regions. To validate the current results, future studies may be needed to explore other parameters using whole-brain approaches in larger samples. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that OT influenced social perception by modifying the communication between frontal and posterior regions, an attenuation that potentially impacts both social and non-social early perception. We also show that OT influences differ between top-down and bottom-up processes, depending on the social context. Overall, by showing that OT influences both social-related perception and overall attention during early processing stages, we add new information to the existing understanding of the impact of OT on neural processing in ASD. Furthermore, by highlighting the influence of OT on early perception, we provide new directions for treatments for difficulties in early attentional phases in this population. Trial registration Registered on October 27, 2021-Retrospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT05096676 (details on clinical registration can be found in www. CLINICALTRIAL: gov , unique identifier: NCT05096676 ).

The dual neural effects of oxytocin in autistic youth: results from a randomized trial.

Recent discoveries have highlighted the effects of oxytocin (OT) on social behavior and perception among autistic individuals. However, a gap persists in the literature regarding the potential effects of OT and the neural temporal dynamics due to OT administration. We explored the effect of OT on autistic individuals using magnetoencephalography (MEG), focusing on M100, M170, and M250, social perception-related components that tend to show atypical patterns in autistic individuals. Twenty-five autistic adolescents participated in this randomized, double-blind MEG study. Autistic individuals arrived at the lab twice and received an acute dose of intranasal OT or placebo in each session. During the scans, participants were asked to identify pictures of social and non-social stimuli. Additionally, 23 typically developing (TD) adolescents performed the same task in the MEG as a benchmark that allowed us to better characterize neural regions of interest and behavioral results for this age group in this task. A source-model beamformer analysis revealed that OT enhanced neural activity for social stimuli in frontal regions during M170. Additionally, in each of the preselected time windows, OT increased activation in the left hemisphere, regardless of the content of the presented stimuli. We suggest that OT increased the processing of social stimuli through two separate mechanisms. First, OT increased neural activity in a nonspecific manner, allowing increased allocation of attention toward the stimuli. Second, OT enhanced M170 activity in frontal regions only in response to social stimuli. These results reveal the temporal dynamics of the effects of OT on the early stages of social and non-social perception in autistic adolescents.Trial registration: This study was a part of a project registered as clinical trial October 27th, 2021. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05096676.

Interpersonal Physiological Synchrony Predicts Group Cohesion.

A key emergent property of group social dynamic is synchrony-the coordination of actions, emotions, or physiological processes between group members. Despite this fact and the inherent nested structure of groups, little research has assessed physiological synchronization between group members from a multi-level perspective, thus limiting a full understanding of the dynamics between members. To address this gap of knowledge we re-analyzed a large dataset (N = 261) comprising physiological and psychological data that were collected in two laboratory studies that involved two different social group tasks. In both studies, following the group task, members reported their experience of group cohesion via questionnaires. We utilized a non-linear analysis method-multidimensional recurrence quantification analysis that allowed us to represent physiological synchronization in cardiological interbeat intervals between group members at the individual-level and at the group-level. We found that across studies and their conditions, the change in physiological synchrony from baseline to group interaction predicted a psychological sense of group cohesion. This result was evident both at the individual and the group levels and was not modified by the context of the interaction. The individual- and group-level effects were highly correlated. These results indicate that the relationship between synchrony and cohesion is a multilayered construct. We re-affirm the role of physiological synchrony for cohesion in groups. Future studies are needed to crystallize our understanding of the differences and similarities between synchrony at the individual-level and synchrony at the group level to illuminate under which conditions one of these levels has primacy, or how they interact.

Searching for Certainty During a Pandemic: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Moderating Role of Media Consumption on the Development of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms During COVID-19.

ABSTRACT: The current study longitudinally examined the moderating effects of consuming different types of media ( i.e. , formal [news] and informal [social media, WhatsApp]) in the association among COVID-19-related worries, intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSSs). Data were collected at two time points during July and September 2020, with approximately 60 days between measurements. Results showed that both COVID-19-related worries and IU were found to be positively associated with PTSSs. An interaction with formal media consumption was found, so that when one's formal media consumption was high, he or she were most vulnerable to the aforementioned effects on the development of PTSSs. Our findings point to the interactive effects of both COVID-19 worries and IU with media consumption on the development of PTSSs. Although media consumption might provide information during uncertainty, it may also intensify PTSSs during times of crisis. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Shifts in Behavioral Synchrony in Response to an Interaction Partner's Distress in Adolescents With and Without ASD.

Individuals with Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show altered behavioral synchrony and empathic behavior. Yet, an ecologically valid examination of these in adolescents is still required. We employed a social interaction sequence comprising a friendly conversation with a confederate, an expression of distress by her, and a return to friendly conversation. 44 male adolescents (22 with ASD) participated. Socio-emotional behaviors, coded by blind raters and through automated analyses of motion, were analyzed. Results indicated reduced synchrony in the ASD group. Moreover, whereas controls displayed a decrease in synchrony when facing another's distress, adolescents with ASD showed no such change. No group differences were found on empathic behavior. Findings imply gaps between verbal and non-verbal responses of adolescents with ASD to a distressed interaction partner.

Pre-pandemic electrodermal activity predicts current COVID-related fears: household size during lockdown as a moderating factor.

Background: Despite the immense impact of COVID-19 on mental health, there is a lack of prospective studies examining physiological predictors of current risk factors. Moreover, although physiological processes evidently interact with socio-demographic factors to modulate individuals' response to a crisis, it remains largely unknown how these complex interactions shape people's mental responses to COVID-19. To fill these gaps of knowledge, we chose a potent physiological marker of distress - heightened baseline electrodermal activity (EDA) measured before the pandemic began - and hypothesized it would be related to greater COVID-related fears and worries as a function of individuals' household size.Method: 185 individuals (71% women), who had participated in our lab studies 2-3 years ago, in which we assessed their baseline EDA, completed several questionnaires online, including assessments of their current fears regarding COVID. Participants also reported the number of people in their household, with whom they had been together during a lockdown which was taking place at the time. We used pre-pandemic EDA measures in combination with their household size to predict participants' current fears.Results: Pre-pandemic EDA measures predicted current COVID-related fears and worries. Specifically for the EDA measure "number of skin conductance responses", we further found that the number of people in the household during the lockdown, moderated the abovementioned relationship, such that it occurred in individuals with average and larger households and not in those with small households.Conclusions: We provide a highly relevant and unique combination of physiological, socio-demographic, and psychological measures, which augments the potential to optimally target populations vulnerable to COVID-related distress, and subsequently offer them early mental health interventions.

The relationship between maternal smartphone use, physiological responses, and gaze patterns during breastfeeding and face-to-face interactions with infant.

Smartphone use during parent-child interactions is highly prevalent, however, there is a lack of scientific knowledge on how smartphone use during breastfeeding or face-to-face interactions may modulate mothers' attentive responsiveness towards the infant as well as maternal physiological arousal. In the present study, we provide the first evidence for the influence of the smartphone on maternal physiological responses and her attention towards the infant during breastfeeding and face-to-face interactions. Twenty breastfeeding mothers and their infants participated in this lab study during which electrodermal activity, cardiograph impedance, and gaze patterns were monitored in breastfeeding and face-to-face interactions with three conditions manipulating the level of maternal smartphone involvement. We report that mothers' gaze toward their infants decreased when breastfeeding while using the smartphone compared to face-to-face interaction. Further, we show that greater maternal electrodermal activity and cardiac output were related to longer maternal gaze fixation toward the smartphone during breastfeeding. Finally, results indicate that mothers' smartphone addiction levels were negatively correlated with electrodermal activity during breastfeeding. This study provides an initial basis for much required further research that will explore the influence of smartphone use on maternal biobehavioral responses in this digital age and the consequences for infant cognitive, emotional, and social development.

Pre-pandemic autonomic nervous system activity predicts mood regulation expectancies during COVID-19 in Israel.

Despite the unfolding impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological well-being, there is a lack of prospective studies that target physiological markers of distress. There is a need to examine physiological predictors from the pre-pandemic period to identify and treat individuals at-risk. In this study, our aim was to use pre-pandemic markers of autonomic nervous system (ANS) parasympathetic and sympathetic regulation to predict individuals' psychological well-being during the crisis. We also assessed the role of mood regulation expectancies as a mediator of the association between pre-pandemic physiological measures and COVID-related well-being. In May to June 2020, 185 Israeli adults completed online questionnaires assessing their mood regulation expectancies since COVID-19 began, and their current well-being. These individuals had participated in lab studies 1.5-3 years prior to this assessment, where their physiological measures were taken, including respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and skin conductance level (SCL). RSA was positively related to mood regulation expectancies during COVID-19 (b = 3.46, 95% CI [0.84, 6.05]). Mood regulation expectancies, in turn, positively predicted well-being during the crisis (b = 0.021, 95% CI [0.016, 0.027]). The mediation was significant and moderated by SCL (index = -0.09, 95% CI [-0.02, -0.0001]), such that it was strongest for individuals with low SCL. We point to pre-pandemic physiological mechanisms underlying individuals' mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings have theoretical, diagnostic, and clinical implications that may refine our understanding of the physiological basis of resilience to the COVID-19 pandemic and thus may be implemented to identify and assist individuals in these times.

Group-level physiological synchrony and individual-level anxiety predict positive affective behaviors during a group decision-making task.

Joint performance can lead to the synchronization of physiological processes among group members during a shared task. Recently, it has been shown that synchronization is indicative of subjective ratings of group processes and task performance. However, different methods have been used to quantify synchronization, and little is known about the effects of the choice of method and level of analysis (individuals, dyads, or triads) on the results. In this study, participants performed a decision-making task in groups of three while physiological signals (heart rate and electrodermal activity), positive affective behavior, and personality traits were measured. First, we investigated the effects of different levels of analysis of physiological synchrony on affective behavior. We computed synchrony measures as (a) individual contributions to group synchrony, (b) the average dyadic synchrony within a group, and (c) group-level synchrony. Second, we assessed the association between physiological synchrony and positive affective behavior. Third, we investigated the moderating effects of trait anxiety and social phobia on behavior. We discovered that the effects of physiological synchrony on positive affective behavior were particularly strong at the group level but nonsignificant at the individual and dyadic levels. Moreover, we found that heart rate and electrodermal synchronization showed opposite effects on group members' display of affective behavior. Finally, trait anxiety moderated the relationship between physiological synchrony and affective behavior, perhaps due to social uncertainty, while social phobia did not have a moderating effect. We discuss these results regarding the role of different physiological signals and task demands during joint action.

The social neuroscience of music: Understanding the social brain through human song.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, we have seen that people can adapt quickly to ensure that their social needs are met after being forced to isolate and socially distance. Many individuals turned immediately to music, as evidenced by people singing from balconies, watching live concerts on social media, and group singing online. In this article, we show how these musical adaptations can be understood through the latest advances in the social neuroscience of music-an area that, to date, has been largely overlooked. By streamlining and synthesizing prior theory and research, we introduce a model of the brain that sheds light on the social functions and brain mechanisms that underlie the musical adaptations used for human connection. We highlight the role of oxytocin and the neurocircuitry associated with reward, stress, and the immune system. We show that the social brain networks implicated in music production (in contrast to music listening) overlap with the networks in the brain implicated in the social processes of human cognition-mentalization, empathy, and synchrony-all of which are components of herding; moreover, these components have evolved for social affiliation and connectedness. We conclude that the COVID-19 pandemic could be a starting point for an improved understanding of the relationship between music and the social brain, and we outline goals for future research in the social neuroscience of music. In a time when people across the globe have been unable to meet in person, they have found a way to meet in the music. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Interpersonal autonomic nervous system synchrony and its association to relationship and performance - a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Interpersonal physiological synchrony is the spontaneous temporal coordination of physiological processes between several individuals. This type of synchrony is critical for human relationships, as it promotes two important outcomes: the quality of the relationships between synchronized individuals, and how well synchronized individuals perform together. Nonetheless a clear estimation of the size of the correlations between interpersonal physiological synchrony and relationship or performance outcomes is missing. To address this gap in knowledge was the main goal of the current meta-analysis. We focused on interpersonal physiological synchrony in measures of autonomic nervous system activity, and specifically we examined the distinct branches of the autonomic nervous system. We conducted two meta-analyses: (1) Estimating the association between interpersonal physiological synchrony and relationship outcomes (2) Estimating the association between interpersonal physiological synchrony and performance outcomes. In the first meta-analysis (i.e., relationships), the overall estimated correlation was small with a marginal significance (ES=0.09, p>.10) and high heterogeneity (I2=76.0%). In further sub-group analysis, we discovered a positive relationship for measures of sympathetic synchrony (ES=0.19, p=.02), a negative relationship for measures of parasympathetic synchrony(ES=-0.21, p=.03), and a positive relationship for measures of combined sympathetic and parasympathetic synchrony (ES =0.16, p=.02). As for the second meta-analysis (i.e., performance), the overall effect size of correlation was small (ES=0.26, p<.01) and heterogeneous (I2=52.7%). Our results emphasize the small effect sizes of the correlations between physiological synchrony and performance or relational outcomes, as well as the differential effects for synchrony in sympathetic versus parasympathetic activity. Combined with the high heterogeneity, our results point to the need for a rigorous a-priori scientific approach which distinguishes between different types of physiological synchrony.

Validating Measures of Electrodermal Activity and Heart Rate Variability Derived From the Empatica E4 Utilized in Research Settings That Involve Interactive Dyadic States.

Portable and wireless devices that collect physiological data are becoming more and more sought after in clinical and psychophysiological research as technology swiftly advances. These devices allow for data collection in interactive states, such as dyadic therapy, with reduced restraints compared to traditional laboratory devices. One such portable device is the Empatica E4 wristband (Empatica Srl, Milan, Italy) which allows quantifying cardiac interbeat intervals (IBIs), heart rate variability (HRV), and electro-dermal activity (EDA), as well as several other acceleration and temperature measures. In the current study, we aimed to assess IBI, HRV, and EDA measures, against the same data collected from the well-validated MindWare mobile impedance cardiograph device (MindWare Technology, Gahanna, OH, United States). We assessed the E4 strictly as a research instrument and not as a clinical tool. We were specifically interested in the wristbands' performance during naturalistic interactive face-to-face conversations which inherently involve more hand movements. We collected data from 30 participants, nested in 15 dyads, which were connected to both devices simultaneously, during rest and during a social conversation. After preprocessing and analyses, we found that mean IBIs obtained by the E4 and the MindWare device, were highly similar during rest and during conversation. Medium to high correlations were found between the devices with respect to several HRV measures, with higher correlations during rest compared to conversation. The E4 failed to produce reliable EDA data. We conclude by discussing the strengths and limitations of the E4 during seated conversational states and suggest optimal ways to collect and analyze data with the E4.